Advanced
Educational psychology
An
Assignment
on
Memory
and its types and Causes of Forgetting
Contents
I.
Memory
·
Introduction
·
Definitions:
·
How do we
remember?
·
Components of
Memory
·
Measurement of
retention Memory
·
Types of Memory
·
Memory
Improvement techniques
II.Forgetting
·
Cause of
Forgetting
·
Educational Implications
·
Conclusion
·
References
Memory and its types and Causes of Forgetting
Memory
Introduction
Memory and forgetting are common
phenomenon experienced by everybody. Life would have been happier if we would
remember the most of what we learn. Learning itself is not enough but important
thing is whether we remember or not. Memory has a great role to play in our
learning and knowledge acquisition. Therefore it is important it is imperative
for a teacher to know the dynamics of memory and forgetting so that he may
understand the students better and help them by enhancing their memory
resulting in better performance.
Definitions:
James Drever(1952)- “Memory is that characteristic which underlines all
learning, the essential feature of which is reflection. In narrow sense it is
recall and recognition.”
Woodworth and Marquis(1965)- “Memory is
mental power which consists in learning, retaining and remembering what has
previously been learnt.”
Ryburn (1956)“The power that we have to store our experiences,
and to bring them into the field of our consciousness some time after the
experiences have occurred, it is termed as memory.”
So memory is the capacity to retain
the learnt material for a longer period of time and reproduce it through
recognition or recall when it required.
How do we remember?
Atkinson and Schifrin developed the theory of storage
and transfer model in which they explain how we remember. The process of
memorization begins with the interaction of one’s sense organ with ones
environment. Then it goes to sensory storage and pause for a second. There
seems to be a sensory storage for each sense visual, auditory, smell, taste and
touch. However visual and auditory storages system referred to as Iconic
storage and Echoic storage. Other sense organs have also storage named as
Heptic. The sensory information passing through sensory stores either
disappears within a second or pass to short term store. Here information stays
for about 20 seconds. In case short term store is able to hold information up
to up to 20 minutes then
It
may go to the long term store. For transferring information from short term to
long term one can use many control process. Rehearsal is one such activity and
coding and other mental activities may aid long term memory. The stored as well
as organized information in the long term store in the coded form is
transferred back to the short term store where it is decoded and employed for
responses as desired and ordered by the brain.
Components of Memory
Memory involves four basic
components or factors:
(1)Learning
(2) Retention or storage (3) Recall or
retrieval (4) recognition. These are all
very closely related.
(1)Learning
Chronologically learning precedes
memory. It is the process of registering the impressions or acquiring new
knowledge, skills, and attitudes and so on. The teacher has to be concerned
about learning process to use very profitably various principles of remembering
established by numerous experiments.
Meaningful learning: Memorization is
often done by the method of repetition. Repetition is absolutely necessary in
the process of remembering. Children learn some words and rhymes without paying
any attention to the meaning and significance of the material that has to be
remembered. Hence attempt to be made to find out relationship among the
different parts of the material itself. In other words the whole material is to
be converted into a meaningful pattern with its various parts that fit together
in a meaningful manner. Attempt should be made to relate the meaning and
significance of the material with other things that we have learnt previously.
Sapaced and Unspaced learning: When trials are given without space or any break this
space is called unspaced practice. Results indicate that there is a definite
advantage in favour of spaced learning over unspaced learning method.
Continuous study over a long period of time is not suitable to memorize the
material.
Whole Vs Part Method of learning: Experiments
validate these two methods under different conditions. Meaning and organization
favour whole method. Parts make a good sense in a whole than isolated. It also
depends on the length of difficulty level of the material and also on the
nature of learner, according to which part method is always superior for the
children.
Part Progressive Method: In this method learning material is divided into
different parts. First part is to be learnt then second and then first and
second together then third then first second and third parts together and so
on. It has some drawbacks also. Certain units get undue repetition whereas
later units get fewer repetitions.
Mixed or Mediating Method: Difficult portions are selected in this method and the
subject masters the difficulty first and then starts learning the material from
the beginning through whole method till the second difficulty is reached. Again
that difficulty is mastered and then material is learnt from the very
beginning.
Repetition and recitation: From the view of performance of retention it has been
found by experiments that the more we repeat, the better it is. Even after
mastery over assignment it is advantageous to repeat the lesson a few more
times in view of better retention.
Verbalization: In
the complex motor task, learning is facilitated by verbalization because it
shows that motor skill is actually learnt as a pattern with both verbal and
motor constituents. So learning proceeds much faster. So here learner should
stress correct performance from the very beginning, space, accuracy and speed
should be maintained.
1
F.1Negative accelerated curve F.2Positive accelerated curve F.3Combination
of positive and negative accelerated curve
(2)Retention
This is ability to store information
and remember. The process of retaining appears to be passive but is not wholly
so. A good amount of mental activity goes on in connection with the process of
retention. The ability to retain seems largely determined by genetic
constitution. The decline of retention in old age is due to decline of the
functioning of the brain.
Curve of Retention
(3)Recall
We learn in order to recall when we need. Failure to recall learned
material would mean that our learning process has not been useful and
effective. Recall is more difficult than learning. Recall is greatly affected
by emotions and motivation both at the time of learning and subsequently.
(4)Recognition
Parallel to recall, recognition is another factor in
the process of memory. Recognition is awareness of previous experience it is
complete familiarity without any mistake. Recognition is rather a type of
experience than a sort of behavior. Recognition is simpler and more reliable
too. For good retention recall and recognition go side by side. Recognition may
appear to be passive behaviour. But in fact, recognition may also is an active
process where perceptual process comes into play.
Measurement of retention Memory
Psychologists have developed four
methods to study the process of remembering.
1. Recall
Method: In this method a person is
required to reproduce what he had learnt in the past such as reproduction
during examination. Here students are shown some words and after seeing them
they are asked to reproduce as many as words possible.
2.
Relearning Method: Here subject is asked to relearn the already
learnt material. The difference between the number of trials and time taken in
two occasions of learning is considered to be the index of retention. This
index is often referred to as saving score. It is because time and trials are
saved in the second learning.
3.
Recognition Method: Recognition means
distinction between seen and unseen. When we take multiple choice questions in
the examination we recognize the correct answer out of the choice given.
4.
Reproduction: Here learner is asked
to reproduce what he had learnt in the past exactly and correctly. The
retention is measured on the basis of errors made by the learner in the
reproduction. Lesser the number of mistakes higher will be the retaining power
of the learner.
Types of Memory
Depending on the nature of learning
tasks and age, nature and capacity of learner, memory could be of different
categories.
1. Short term Memory: Short term memory
does not lasts for more than few
seconds long situated in the prefrontal cortex. It lets the individual keep
several things in mind at the same time. For instance, conversation enables one
to remember the beginning of a sentence until speaker gets the end.
2. Long Term Memory: It represents our general knowledge about the working
of the world, and is located in the angular gyrus. The memory of words,
symbols, corporate trademarks are unforgettable. Even though not used for years, they will not
fade away. Habit memory is the function of the body and is related with motor
mechanism. Once learnt how to ride bicycle, drive a car or swim, it is likely
that those are not forgotten.
3. Remote Memory: It is the life time accumulation of data a wide
variety of topics. It is spread around the cerebral cortex. It seems to
diminish with age. The decline could be retrieval problem.
4. Rote memory: Result of rote learning by children they remember
without understanding.
5. Episodic Memory: this is the memory of specific personal experiences.
6. Sensory Memory: Sensory impressions retain that knowledge.
·
Auditory Memory--
Memory of auditory impressions.
·
Visual Memory –
Memory of visual impressions.
·
Tactual Memory –
Memory of touch is rich in blind
·
Olfactory
Memory--Memory of Smell
·
Gustatory
Memory—Memory of Tastes
Memory Improvement techniques
These are a few memory improvement techniques
useful for the learners.
1. Will to learn: There must be strong determination or will to learn
effectively and successfully.
2. Interest and Attention: Interest and attention are essential for useful
learning and memorization. A person who has no interest in what he learns will
not give due attention to it and consequently will not be able to learn it.
3. Over learning: If subject matter is properly learnt then the
retention will be high.
4. Meaningfulness: If the subject matter taught to students is
meaningful and it has been presented to them in an organinsed manner, it will
be retained for longer period of time.
5. Following the Principle of
association: A thing never should be
learnt in an isolated manner. An effort should be made to connect it with previous learning on the one hand and
with as many related things possible on the other.
6. Grouping and rhythm: grouping and rhythm also help and facilitate learning
and help in remembering. For example telephone no. is learnt better when digits
are grouped. Children learn the multiplication table by rhythmic recitation.
7. Using as many sense as possible: Senses are said to be the gateways of knowledge and
it has also been found that things are better learnt and remembered when they
are presented through more than one senses.
8. Learner’s internal factors: The attention should be given to the student’s
physical and mental well being. His emotions should be trained and emotional
tensions removed as far as possible.
9. Provisions for change and Proper
rest: Adequate provision for rest,
sleep and variety in the work should be made as this helps to relieve fatigue
and monotony.
10. Repetition and recitation: Finally repetition and continuous practice add to the
effectiveness of memorization. Intelligent repetition with full understanding
always helps the making learning effective and enduring and things repeated and
practiced frequently are remembered for a long time.
11. Making use of SQ4R Techniques: Thomas Robinson developed this strategy for effective
learning and memorization.
·
Survey: Initially the material to be remembered is surveyed
quickly and get an idea of what is going to be remembered.
·
Question: In this step the learner asks himself questions like
why, what, when, where and who concerning the material surveyed in the first
step.
·
Read: The material is then read for mental comprehension
and to learn the answer to the questions raised in the second step.
·
Reflect: The information given in the required material is
organized and made meaningful by linking
it with the previous knowledge comparing
and contrasting the facts correlating the information with other similar facts,
concepts and principles and attempting to make use of the material in solving simulated problems.
·
Recite and
Recall: The information provided in
the material is remembered through recitation and recall both orally and in
writing.
·
Review: In the final stage, the material needed to be
actively reviewed.
12. Making use of mnemonics: This system makes use of the use of visual imagery to
provide useful association and connections for remembering the required
materials. Ex. Peg word method tells us how the counting is learnt with the
help of rhythmic association of places like one is a gun; two is a shoe and so
on. There are other methods also like key word method a word is remembered
through a key word, initial letter strategy.
Forgetting
Forgetting is much common to all. It
is opposite of remembering. Much of what has been learnt is subjected to
forgetting with the passage of time. For instance a poem you have learnt in
your elementary school might have been forgotten at least partially. This is
the inability to recall previously learnt materially is essential aspect of
learning process.
Definitions:
Munn(1967)- “Forgetting is the loss, permanent or temporary, of
the ability to recall or recognize something learned earlier.”
Drever(1952) - “ Forgetting
means failure at any time to recall an
experiences, when attempting to do so, or to perform an action previously
learned.”
Cause of Forgetting
There are
two kinds of forgetting 1. Normal forgetting 2. Abnormal forgetting
1)Normal
forgetting is the result of different types of cause;
i.
The trace decay theory: With the lapse of time what is learnt is forgotten.
Older the experience the weaker its
memory. With the passage of time, through disuse, the memory of impressions of
what we learn gets weaker and finally
fades away ex. Mathematical formulae,
however well learned if never used or
reviewed might be forgotten.
ii.
Interference:
There is a possibility of overlapping of the learnt material. Forgetting by
interference is a case of retention amnesia, as here it is the stability and existence of memory traces that are
disturbed. Experiments have shown definite evidence in favour of sleep or rest
as a condition helping better retention. Crowded learning, unspaced learning
does not yield good results.
iii.
Retroactive and Proactive inhibitions: Inhibition means checking or causing to withhold. It
has been found that if one period of learning ‘A’ is immediately followed by another effort at
learning ‘B’ which is similar material, there is a great deal of inhibition when any one has to be
recalled. While recalling ‘A’ if ‘B’ material interferers it is retroactive
inhibition. While recalling ‘B’ if ‘A’ material interferes it is proactive
inhibition. If the materials are dissimilar, through learned one after another,
inhibition is less.
iv.
No meaning:
If the learning is not meaningful forgetting occurs as it does not give scope
for the development of relationships.
v.
Inadequate impressions: Inadequate
impressions at the time of learning leads to forgetting.Overlearned lessons are
better retained.
vi.
Lack of interest: Lack of interest in the learning material leads to forgetting.
vii.
Mental and physical ill health: Mental and physical ill health sets in physical and mental
fatigue and affects learning.
viii.
Motivated forgetting: Unpleasant events are to be forgotten soon to
participate in the present.
2)
Abnormal forgetting: Abnormal
forgetting may result from external causes such as a severe injury to the brain
due to accident or otherwise retention amnesia. Abnormal forgetting also may be
due to repression of certain parts or details or certain experiences involving
guilt, shame or frustration which are not palatable to the main stream of
conscious mind.
Educational
Implications
The teacher should design his methodology of teaching
according to the theories of memory and forgetting. Following suggestions could
be helpful in enhancing their memory.
¨ Awareness of the different memory levels of children.
¨ Knowing and understanding the student and helping him
to overcome the traumatic experiences
and unwanted feelings
¨ Creation of conducive environment and condition for learning
¨ Utilizing as many sense possible
¨ Occasional test of memory
¨ Use of memory enhancing techniques.
Conclusion
Remembering is a process of
developing association and sustaining the same by practice. There are memories
pertaining to different sensory modalities. Memory has four part processes such
as learning, retention, recall and recognition. Adaptation of sound method of
learning such as recitation, distributed practice, studying as a whole would
ensure good retention. Improvement of memory is possible by better organization
of the material, developing interest in the subject and also removing distractions.
Sometimes forgetting is blessing in disguise because one need not remember
things that are no more needed.
Review
Questions
1.
What is the part process of learning?
2.
Why is recitation preferred to repetition?
3.
Why is distributed practice is better than massed practice?
4.
Why does a person fail to recall?
5.
What are the causes of forgetting?
6.
What are short term and long term memory?
References
1.
Mohan,Dr. G.Aruna, Educational Psychology, Neelkamal
publication Ltd. Delhi& Hydrabad,2007, pages 107-120.
2.
Dandapani,S.Genenral psychology, Neelkamal
publication Ltd. Delhi & Hydrabad,2007, pages 106-114.
3.
Mangal,S.K. Advanced Educational psychology Learning
Private limited, New Delhi 2010,
Pages257-275
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