Advanced
Educational psychology
Memory and its types and Causes of
Forgetting
Contents
I. Memory
·
Introduction
·
Definitions:
·
How
do we remember?
·
Components
of Memory
·
Measurement
of retention Memory
·
Types
of Memory
·
Memory
Improvement techniques
II.Forgetting
·
Cause
of Forgetting
·
Educational
Implications
·
Conclusion
·
References
Memory and its
types and Causes of Forgetting
Memory
Introduction
Memory
and forgetting are common phenomenon experienced by everybody. Life would have
been happier if we would remember the most of what we learn. Learning itself is
not enough but important thing is whether we remember or not. Memory has a
great role to play in our learning and knowledge acquisition. Therefore it is
important it is imperative for a teacher to know the dynamics of memory and
forgetting so that he may understand the students better and help them by
enhancing their memory resulting in better performance.
Definitions:
James
Drever(1952)-
“Memory is that characteristic which underlines all learning, the essential
feature of which is reflection. In narrow sense it is recall and recognition.”
Woodworth
and Marquis(1965)- “Memory is mental power which consists in
learning, retaining and remembering what has previously been learnt.”
Ryburn
(1956)“The
power that we have to store our experiences, and to bring them into the field
of our consciousness some time after the experiences have occurred, it is
termed as memory.”
So
memory is the capacity to retain the learnt material for a longer period of
time and reproduce it through recognition or recall when it required.
How
do we remember?
Atkinson and
Schifrin developed the theory of storage and transfer model in which they
explain how we remember. The process of memorization begins with the
interaction of one’s sense organ with ones environment. Then it goes to sensory
storage and pause for a second. There seems to be a sensory storage for each
sense visual, auditory, smell, taste and touch. However visual and auditory
storages system referred to as Iconic storage and Echoic storage. Other sense
organs have also storage named as Heptic. The sensory information passing
through sensory stores either disappears within a second or pass to short term
store. Here information stays for about 20 seconds. In case short term store is
able to hold information up to up to 20
minutes then
It may go to the long term store. For
transferring information from short term to long term one can use many control
process. Rehearsal is one such activity and coding and other mental activities
may aid long term memory. The stored as well as organized information in the
long term store in the coded form is transferred back to the short term store
where it is decoded and employed for responses as desired and ordered by the
brain.
Components
of Memory
Memory
involves four basic components or factors:
(1)Learning (2) Retention or storage (3)
Recall or retrieval (4) recognition. These are all very closely related.
(1)Learning
Chronologically
learning precedes memory. It is the process of registering the impressions or
acquiring new knowledge, skills, and attitudes and so on. The teacher has to be
concerned about learning process to use very profitably various principles of
remembering established by numerous experiments.
Meaningful
learning: Memorization is often done by the method of
repetition. Repetition is absolutely necessary in the process of remembering.
Children learn some words and rhymes without paying any attention to the
meaning and significance of the material that has to be remembered. Hence
attempt to be made to find out relationship among the different parts of the
material itself. In other words the whole material is to be converted into a
meaningful pattern with its various parts that fit together in a meaningful
manner. Attempt should be made to relate the meaning and significance of the
material with other things that we have learnt previously.
Sapaced
and Unspaced learning:
When trials are given without space or any break this space is called unspaced
practice. Results indicate that there is a definite advantage in favour of
spaced learning over unspaced learning method. Continuous study over a long
period of time is not suitable to memorize the material.
Whole
Vs Part Method of learning: Experiments
validate these two methods under different conditions. Meaning and organization
favour whole method. Parts make a good sense in a whole than isolated. It also
depends on the length of difficulty level of the material and also on the
nature of learner, according to which part method is always superior for the
children.
Part
Progressive Method:
In this method learning material is divided into different parts. First part is
to be learnt then second and then first and second together then third then
first second and third parts together and so on. It has some drawbacks also.
Certain units get undue repetition whereas later units get fewer repetitions.
Mixed
or Mediating Method: Difficult
portions are selected in this method and the subject masters the difficulty
first and then starts learning the material from the beginning through whole
method till the second difficulty is reached. Again that difficulty is mastered
and then material is learnt from the very beginning.
Repetition
and recitation: From
the view of performance of retention it has been found by experiments that the
more we repeat, the better it is. Even after mastery over assignment it is
advantageous to repeat the lesson a few more times in view of better retention.
Verbalization: In the complex motor task, learning is
facilitated by verbalization because it shows that motor skill is actually
learnt as a pattern with both verbal and motor constituents. So learning
proceeds much faster. So here learner should stress correct performance from
the very beginning, space, accuracy and speed should be maintained.
F.1Negative
accelerated curve F.2Positive accelerated curve F.3Combination
of positive and negative accelerated curve
(2)Retention
This
is ability to store information and remember. The process of retaining appears
to be passive but is not wholly so. A good amount of mental activity goes on in
connection with the process of retention. The ability to retain seems largely
determined by genetic constitution. The decline of retention in old age is due
to decline of the functioning of the brain.
(3)Recall
We
learn in order to recall when we need. Failure to recall learned material would
mean that our learning process has not been useful and effective. Recall is
more difficult than learning. Recall is greatly affected by emotions and
motivation both at the time of learning and subsequently.
(4)Recognition
Parallel to recall, recognition
is another factor in the process of memory. Recognition is awareness of
previous experience it is complete familiarity without any mistake. Recognition
is rather a type of experience than a sort of behavior. Recognition is simpler
and more reliable too. For good retention recall and recognition go side by
side. Recognition may appear to be passive behaviour. But in fact, recognition
may also is an active process where perceptual process comes into play.
Measurement
of retention Memory
Psychologists
have developed four methods to study the process of remembering.
1. Recall Method: In this method a person is
required to reproduce what he had learnt in the past such as reproduction
during examination. Here students are shown some words and after seeing them
they are asked to reproduce as many as words possible.
2. Relearning Method: Here subject is asked to relearn the already
learnt material. The difference between the number of trials and time taken in
two occasions of learning is considered to be the index of retention. This
index is often referred to as saving score. It is because time and trials are
saved in the second learning.
3. Recognition Method: Recognition
means distinction between seen and unseen. When we take multiple choice
questions in the examination we recognize the correct answer out of the choice
given.
4. Reproduction: Here learner is asked to
reproduce what he had learnt in the past exactly and correctly. The retention
is measured on the basis of errors made by the learner in the reproduction.
Lesser the number of mistakes higher will be the retaining power of the
learner.
Types
of Memory
Depending
on the nature of learning tasks and age, nature and capacity of learner, memory
could be of different categories.
1.
Short term Memory:
Short term memory does not lasts for
more than few seconds long situated in the prefrontal cortex. It lets the
individual keep several things in mind at the same time. For instance,
conversation enables one to remember the beginning of a sentence until speaker
gets the end.
2.
Long Term Memory:
It represents our general knowledge about the working of the world, and is
located in the angular gyrus. The memory of words, symbols, corporate
trademarks are unforgettable. Even
though not used for years, they will not fade away. Habit memory is the
function of the body and is related with motor mechanism. Once learnt how to
ride bicycle, drive a car or swim, it is likely that those are not forgotten.
3.
Remote Memory:
It is the life time accumulation of data a wide variety of topics. It is spread
around the cerebral cortex. It seems to diminish with age. The decline could be
retrieval problem.
4.
Rote memory:
Result of rote learning by children they remember without understanding.
5.
Episodic Memory:
this is the memory of specific personal experiences.
6.
Sensory Memory:
Sensory impressions retain that knowledge.
·
Auditory
Memory-- Memory of auditory impressions.
·
Visual
Memory – Memory of visual impressions.
·
Tactual
Memory – Memory of touch is rich in blind
·
Olfactory
Memory--Memory of Smell
·
Gustatory
Memory—Memory of Tastes
Memory
Improvement techniques
These are a few memory improvement techniques
useful for the learners.
1.
Will to learn:
There must be strong determination or will to learn effectively and
successfully.
2.
Interest and Attention: Interest and attention are essential for useful
learning and memorization. A person who has no interest in what he learns will
not give due attention to it and consequently will not be able to learn it.
3.
Over learning:
If subject matter is properly learnt then the retention will be high.
4.
Meaningfulness:
If the subject matter taught to students is meaningful and it has been
presented to them in an organinsed manner, it will be retained for longer
period of time.
5.
Following the Principle of association: A thing never should be learnt in an
isolated manner. An effort should be made to connect it with previous learning on the one hand and
with as many related things possible on the other.
6.
Grouping and rhythm:
grouping and rhythm also help and facilitate learning and help in remembering.
For example telephone no. is learnt better when digits are grouped. Children
learn the multiplication table by rhythmic recitation.
7.
Using as many sense as possible: Senses are said to be the gateways of
knowledge and it has also been found that things are better learnt and
remembered when they are presented through more than one senses.
8.
Learner’s internal factors: The attention
should be given to the student’s physical and mental well being. His emotions
should be trained and emotional tensions removed as far as possible.
9.
Provisions for change and Proper rest: Adequate provision for rest, sleep and
variety in the work should be made as this helps to relieve fatigue and
monotony.
10.
Repetition and recitation: Finally repetition and continuous practice add to
the effectiveness of memorization. Intelligent repetition with full
understanding always helps the making learning effective and enduring and
things repeated and practiced frequently are remembered for a long time.
11.
Making use of SQ4R Techniques: Thomas Robinson developed this strategy
for effective learning and memorization.
·
Survey: Initially the material to be remembered
is surveyed quickly and get an idea of what is going to be remembered.
·
Question: In this step the learner asks himself
questions like why, what, when, where and who concerning the material surveyed
in the first step.
·
Read: The material is then read for mental
comprehension and to learn the answer to the questions raised in the second
step.
·
Reflect: The information given in the required
material is organized and made
meaningful by linking it with the previous knowledge comparing and contrasting the facts
correlating the information with other similar facts, concepts and principles
and attempting to make use of the
material in solving simulated problems.
·
Recite and Recall: The information provided in the
material is remembered through recitation and recall both orally and in
writing.
·
Review: In the final stage, the material
needed to be actively reviewed.
12.
Making use of mnemonics: This system makes use of the use of visual imagery
to provide useful association and connections for remembering the required
materials. Ex. Peg word method tells us how the counting is learnt with the
help of rhythmic association of places like one is a gun; two is a shoe and so
on. There are other methods also like key word method a word is remembered
through a key word, initial letter strategy.
Forgetting
Forgetting
is much common to all. It is opposite of remembering. Much of what has been
learnt is subjected to forgetting with the passage of time. For instance a poem
you have learnt in your elementary school might have been forgotten at least
partially. This is the inability to recall previously learnt materially is
essential aspect of learning process.
Definitions:
Munn(1967)- “Forgetting is
the loss, permanent or temporary, of the ability to recall or recognize
something learned earlier.”
Drever(1952)
- “ Forgetting means failure at any time to recall an experiences, when
attempting to do so, or to perform an action previously learned.”
Cause
of Forgetting
There are two kinds of forgetting 1. Normal forgetting
2. Abnormal forgetting
1)Normal forgetting is the result of
different types of cause;
i.
The trace decay
theory: With
the lapse of time what is learnt is forgotten. Older the experience the weaker its memory. With the
passage of time, through disuse, the memory of impressions of what we
learn gets weaker and finally fades
away ex. Mathematical formulae, however
well learned if never used or
reviewed might be forgotten.
ii.
Interference: There is a
possibility of overlapping of the learnt material. Forgetting by interference
is a case of retention amnesia, as here it is the stability and existence of memory traces that are
disturbed. Experiments have shown definite evidence in favour of sleep or rest
as a condition helping better retention. Crowded learning, unspaced learning
does not yield good results.
iii.
Retroactive and
Proactive inhibitions: Inhibition means checking or causing to withhold.
It has been found that if one period of learning ‘A’ is immediately followed by another effort at
learning ‘B’ which is similar material, there is a great deal of inhibition when any one has to be
recalled. While recalling ‘A’ if ‘B’ material interferers it is retroactive
inhibition. While recalling ‘B’ if ‘A’ material interferes it is proactive
inhibition. If the materials are dissimilar, through learned one after another,
inhibition is less.
iv.
No meaning: If the
learning is not meaningful forgetting occurs as it does not give scope for the
development of relationships.
v.
Inadequate
impressions: Inadequate impressions at the time of
learning leads to forgetting.Overlearned lessons are better retained.
vi.
Lack of interest: Lack of
interest in the learning material leads to forgetting.
vii.
Mental and
physical ill health:
Mental and physical ill health sets in physical and mental fatigue and affects
learning.
viii.
Motivated
forgetting:
Unpleasant events are to be forgotten soon to participate in the present.
2) Abnormal
forgetting: Abnormal forgetting may result from external causes such as a
severe injury to the brain due to accident or otherwise retention amnesia.
Abnormal forgetting also may be due to repression of certain parts or details
or certain experiences involving guilt, shame or frustration which are not
palatable to the main stream of conscious mind.
Educational Implications
The teacher
should design his methodology of teaching according to the theories of memory
and forgetting. Following suggestions could be helpful in enhancing their
memory.
¨ Awareness of the
different memory levels of children.
¨ Knowing and
understanding the student and helping him to
overcome the traumatic experiences and unwanted feelings
¨ Creation of
conducive environment and condition for
learning
¨ Utilizing as
many sense possible
¨ Occasional test
of memory
¨ Use of memory
enhancing techniques.
Conclusion
Remembering
is a process of developing association and sustaining the same by practice.
There are memories pertaining to different sensory modalities. Memory has four
part processes such as learning, retention, recall and recognition. Adaptation
of sound method of learning such as recitation, distributed practice, studying
as a whole would ensure good retention. Improvement of memory is possible by
better organization of the material, developing interest in the subject and
also removing distractions. Sometimes forgetting is blessing in disguise
because one need not remember things that are no more needed.
Review Questions
1. What is the part process of learning?
2. Why is recitation preferred to
repetition?
3. Why is distributed practice is better
than massed practice?
4. Why does a person fail to recall?
5. What are the causes of forgetting?
6. What are short term and long term
memory?
References
1.
Mohan,Dr.
G.Aruna, Educational Psychology,
Neelkamal publication Ltd. Delhi& Hydrabad,2007, pages 107-120.
2.
Dandapani,S.Genenral psychology, Neelkamal
publication Ltd. Delhi & Hydrabad,2007, pages 106-114.
3.
Mangal,S.K.
Advanced Educational psychology Learning
Private limited, New Delhi 2010,
Pages257-275
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ReplyDeletePsychoeducation (PE) is defined as an intervention with systematic, structured, and didactic knowledge transfer for an illness and its treatment
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