An Overview of the Methodological Approach of Action Research

An Overview of the Methodological Approach of Action Research

Introduction: Teachers and administrators working in schools are confronted on a daily basis with a myriad of questions, issues, concerns, and problems dealing with children, parents, curriculum and resources. Some of the questions that educators often ask today are given here:

Ø  How can I get the students to enjoy learning?

Ø  What can I do to make handicapped children feel part of my class?

Ø  How can I make my classroom more interesting for students?

Ø  How might we conduct teacher evaluation processes in this school in ways that will improve teaching and learning?

Ø  How can I encourage more parental support for what does on in the classroom?

Ø  How can I adapt an already demanding curriculum to better meet the specific needs of the students in my class?

Ø  How might we work together better as a staff to establish such things as school objectives, philosophy, and budget priorities?

Sometimes, our ways of dealing with these challenges are successful, and we feel we have improved our educational situation. At other times, some of these difficulties seem insurmountable. Problems seem to defy solution; issues remain; questions seem to have no answers. We feel like we are fighting an up-hill battle, and we're not sure that we're winning, or even 'holding our own.' This booklet has been specifically developed for the B.Ed., M.Ed., & M.Phil., students, Research Scholars in Education, practicing teachers and the teacher educators as a resource to use in their efforts to both improve and to better understand their educational practice. It is designed to assist them in their your search for answers to your questions regarding how to make fife in schools better for teachers and for students through the use of ACTION RESEARCH.

Meaning of Action Research: Action Research is a kind of classroom research taken up by the class teacher or subject teachers with a view to find out what action can be taken to solve a certain problem in the shortest possible time. The action which a teacher can take up to study the probable causes of an existing problem and thereby providing suggestions to eradicate the problem is called Action Research.

“A comparative research on the conditions and effects of various forms of social action and research leading to social action that uses a spiral of steps, each of which is composed of a circle of planning, action, and fact-finding about the result of the action.”

Kurt Lewin

Action Research is a fancy way of saying let’s study what’s happening at our school and decide how to make it a better place.

Carl Glickman (1992)

It is a reflective process of progressive problem solving led by individuals working with others in teams to improve the situation or to solve problems. It can also be undertaken by larger organizations or institutions, assisted or guided by professional researchers, with the aim of improving their strategies, practices, and knowledge of the environments within which they practice.

Wikipedia

Known by participatory research, collaborative inquiry, emancipatory research, action learning, and contextual action research, ly, action research is “learning by doing”. A group of people identify a problem, do something to resolve it, see how successful their efforts were, and if not satisfied, try again. 

What is Action Research?

Action: Teachers 'act' all of the time. The teaching day is filled with teacher action: action with children; action with colleagues; action with parents. Yet, as we gain more experience and grow as teachers, how many of us fall into practices that are simply "habits'? How many of us do things in a certain way simply because we have always done things this way? How often do we really look at our teaching actions, and actively explore the possibilities that there may be better ways of acting, ways that may result in a better teaching situation for the teacher, and a better learning situation for the students in our classes?

Research: The "research' often seems to conjure up images of long questionnaires to be completed by busy educators, or of people from the university trying to find out what teachers already seem to know. It can be viewed as a word of theory, not of daily-lived practice in schools. Yet, upon closer examination, we as classroom teachers "conduct research" all of the time. We have a new student who is not doing well, so we call his or her former teacher for information that may be helpful - research. We are preparing for a parent-teacher interview, so we go over the student's work, test results, and standardized test scores to be better prepared for the interview - research. Examples of this type of "on-the-job research" in everyday teaching practice abound, and we soon realize that we could be far less effective without this kind of personal, practical information that we are able to obtain as a result of our "on-the-job research."

Action Research: Action research is a combination of both action and research. It is an attempt to understand our educational practices in a more complete way in order that we may act in ways that may bring about both improvement and understanding.
Action research is a form of self- reflective enquiry conducted by practitioners (teachers) in social situations (school) in order to improve their own social or educational practices, their understanding of these practices and the situations in which the practices are carried out.

What Action Research Is?

Ø  Action research is a process, which improves education by change.

Ø  Action research is educators working together to improve their own practices.

Ø  Action research is developing reflection about our teaching.

Ø  Action research is collaborative, that is, it is educators talking and working with other educators in empowering relationships.

Ø  Action research is the establishment of self-critical communities of educators.

Ø  Action research is a systematic learning process.

Ø  Action research is a process that requires that we "test" our ideas about education.

Ø  Action research is open-minded.

Ø  Action research is keeping a personal journal about our teaching.

Ø  Action research is a political process.

Ø  Action research is a critical analysis of our places of work.

Ø  Action research is an emphasis on the particular.

Ø  Action research is a cycle of planning, acting, observing, and reflecting.

Ø  Action research is working in small groups of educators.

Ø  Action research is a justification of our teaching practices.

What Action Research Is Not?

Ø  Action research is not the usual thing that teachers do when thinking about teaching. It is more systematic and more collaborative.

Ø  Action research is not simply problem solving. It involves problem posing, the search for the questions beneath the questions that we typically ask about our educational practices.

Ø  Action research is not done 'to" other people. Action research is research by particular educators on their 'own' work, and it is done with the help of other practitioners.

Ø  Action research is not hierarchical, but rather is democratic. It is educators working together in relationships of equal ownership and influence regarding the action research project.

Ø  Action research is not a way to implement predetermined answers to educational questions. Action research explores, discovers, and works to create contextually specific solutions to educational problems.

Who does action research?

You do. I do. Potentially, we all do.

Think about any event when you had no idea how to do something, yet you found out through tackling it in a systematic way. For example, how many tries did it take before you stopped falling off your bicycle and actually rode it? You probably did not stop after each fall and rationalise why you were falling off. The chances are you just tried out new strategies until you were successful. This is the basic action principle underpinning action research. It involves identifying a problematic issue, imagining a possible solution, trying it out, evaluating it (did it work?), and changing practice in the light of the evaluation. This is what many people do in numerous life situations.

Why do we need Action Research?

At this point, you may be asking yourself why should you bother to become involved in an action research project. With all of the time and energy demands placed upon a teacher or a principal today, this is indeed a fair question. The curriculum is based on constant researches and studies going on in the field of education. The problems related to syllabus, teaching methods, adjustment of students, etc can be taken up for fundamental researches. But, for the minor problems which individual teacher faces in her classroom, these researches do not prove to be important. There may be some reasons to all such problems, all that is required is a certain more effort on the part of the teachers to get involved and ask why, what and how. It is not concerned merely with solving problems in a class but can also be conducted to verify the consequences of new educational decisions, teaching and leadership strategies, and many more. Here are some reasons for you to consider action research:

Ø  Action research deals with our questions and our problems, not someone else's.

Ø  Action research starts now, that is, we can begin to use action research immediately.

Ø  Action research has proven itself, time and time again, as one way in which educators such as ourselves can come to develop a better understanding, and thus improve, our educational practices.

Ø  Action research can lead to better teaching and better learning.

Ø  Action research helps us to build stronger collegial relationships with those with whom we work.

Ø  Through action research we can gain a greater control over our own teaching practices.

Ø  Action research helps us to develop a greater understanding and appreciation of the ethics involved in education.

Ø  Action research can break down some of the hierarchical barriers that can separate people in schools, such as principals and teachers.

Ø  Action research will provide us with alternative ways of viewing and approaching our educational questions; with new ways of seeing our educational practices.

Ø  Action research helps us to examine the 'habits' we have developed - what we are "really" doing in our teaching or in our administrative practices.

Purposes of Action Research

 The Action Research is done with the following purposes:

Ø  To enable the teachers/teacher-educators to understand their practices.

Ø  To enable the teachers/teacher-educators to assess the sphere of activity more objectively.

Ø  To empower the teachers to improve their teaching practices by testing innovative ideas of their own.

Ø  It is practical and directly relevant to an actual situation in the working world of teachers. The subjects are the students in the classroom, the staff, or others who are primarily involved in the school.

Ø  It is flexible and adaptive, allowing changes during the trial period and sacrificing control in favor of responsiveness and on-the-spot experimentation and innovation.

Scope of Action Research

While teaching, the teacher is confronted with several problems for which he/she does not have any ready-made solutions. In the particular situation a befitting solution needs to be discovered by the teacher and hence he/she is led to conduct action research thereon. A classroom teacher in a particular solution faces such situations innumerable times during her course of teaching, which is quite different from problems faced by other teachers in their schools. Therefore to specify the scope of action research in a particular subject is not at all possible.
To refresh the trainees’ awareness, some probable areas of Action Research are given below:

(a) Understanding Students (Factors related to Students, Behaviour/Characteristics):
Ascertaining the readiness for teaching a particular concept or principle in a particular subject

Ø  Gender difference in interest towards a subject.

Ø  Reasons of shyness in the classroom for a subject

Ø  Causes of truancy (absenteeism) in a subject.

Ø  Performance of children in a particular subject with or without private tuition.

Ø  Comparison of performance in a subject of normal children with those belonging to disadvantaged groups.

(b) Roles and Functions of Teachers (Factors related to teachers):

Ø  Effect of incentives on the development of improvised aids in a particular subject.

Ø  Teachers’ problems in teaching a particular subject in primary / secondary / senior secondary schools.

Ø  Quality of teacher-pupil interaction and pupils’ interest in the learning of a subject.

Ø  Teachers’ personality and teacher-pupil interaction.

Ø  Comparison of quality of interaction in classes of a particular subject taken by male and female teachers.

Ø  Teachers’ applying experience gained by them in in-service training in a particular subject.

(c) School climate/infrastructure (Factors related to school climate):

Ø  Changing sitting order in classroom and span of attention in solving mathematics problems.

Ø  Effect of closed and open-air classrooms on increasing interest in a particular subject.

Ø  Changing time of mathematics period and interest of students in mathematics learning in the class.

Ø  Head teacher’s attitude towards the teaching of a particular subject and priority given to it in the curricular practices of the school.

Ø  Variation in sitting arrangement in multigrade situation and its effect on pupils’ cognitive and effective characteristics of children.

Ø  Inter personal relationship among teachers in the school and its effect on the mathematics (or any other subject) classroom climate.

(d) Curricular and Co curricular practices (Factors related to Curricular and Co curricular Practices):

Ø  Management of classroom activities with children of wide ranging abilities.

Ø  Pupils’ performance on different types of test items on the same content areas of a particular subject.

Ø  Effects of peer teaching on the attainment of mastery learning.

Ø  Effects of different remedial measures in removing learning difficulties.

Ø  Effect of time and types of reinforcement on achievement of concepts on a particular subject.

Ø  Examining effectiveness of teaching mathematics (or any subject) through induction method (or any other method).

When is Action Research used?

Action research is used in real situations, rather than in contrived, experimental studies, since its primary focus is on solving real problems. It can, however, be used by social scientists for preliminary or pilot research, especially when the situation is too ambiguous to frame a precise research question. Mostly, though, in accordance with its principles, it is chosen when circumstances require flexibility, the involvement of the people in the research, or change must take place quickly or holistically. It is often the case that those who apply this approach are practitioners who wish to improve understanding of their practice, social change activists trying to mount an action campaign, or, more likely, academics who have been invited into an organization by decision-makers aware of a problem requiring action research, but lacking the requisite methodological knowledge to deal with it.

Principles of Action Research

What gives action research its unique flavor is the set of principles that guide the research.  Winter (1989) provides a comprehensive overview of six key principles.

Reflexive critique: The principle of reflective critique ensures people reflect on issues and processes and make explicit the interpretations, biases, assumptions and concerns upon which judgments are made.  In this way, practical accounts can give rise to theoretical considerations.

Dialectical critique: A dialectical critique is required to understand the set of relationships both between the phenomenon and its context, and between the elements constituting the phenomenon.  The key elements to focus attention on are those constituent elements that are unstable, or in opposition to one another.  These are the ones that are most likely to create changes.

Collaborative Resource: Participants in an action research project are co-researchers. The principle of collaborative resource presupposes that each person’s ideas are equally significant as potential resources for creating interpretive categories of analysis, negotiated among the participants. 

 Risk: The change process potentially threatens all previously established ways of doing things, thus creating psychic fears among the practitioners.  One of the more prominent fears comes from the risk to ego stemming from open discussion of one’s interpretations, ideas, and judgments.  Initiators of action research should allay others’ fears and invite participation by pointing out that they, too, will be subject to the same process, and that whatever the outcome, learning will take place.

Plural Structure: The nature of the research embodies a multiplicity of views, commentaries and critiques, leading to multiple possible actions and interpretations.  This plural structure of inquiry requires a plural text for reporting.  This means that there will be many accounts made explicit, with commentaries on their contradictions, and a range of options for action presented.  A report, therefore, acts as a support for ongoing discussion among collaborators, rather than a final conclusion of fact.

Theory, Practice, Transformation: For action researchers, theory informs practice, practice refines theory, in a continuous transformation.  In any setting, people’s actions are based on implicitly held assumptions, theories and hypotheses, and with every observed result, theoretical knowledge is enhanced.  The two are intertwined aspects of a single change process. 

Current Types of Action Research

Presently the field had evolved, revealing 4 main streams that had emerged: traditional, contextual (action learning), radical, and educational action research.

Traditional Action Research: Traditional Action Research stemmed from Lewin’s work within organizations and encompasses the concepts and practices of Field Theory, Group Dynamics, T-Groups, and the Clinical Model. The growing importance of labour-management relations led to the application of action research in the areas of Organization Development, Quality of Working Life (QWL), Socio-technical systems (e.g., Information Systems), and Organizational Democracy.  This traditional approach tends toward the conservative, generally maintaining the status quo with regards to organizational power structures.

Contextual Action Research (Action Learning): Contextual Action Research, also sometimes referred to as Action Learning, is an approach derived from Trist’s work on relations between organizations. It is contextual, insofar as it entails reconstituting the structural relations among actors in a social environment; domain-based, in that it tries to involve all affected parties and stakeholders; holographic, as each participant understands the working of the whole; and it stresses that participants act as project designers and co-researchers.

Radical Action Research: The Radical stream, which has its roots in Marxian ‘dialectical materialism’ and the praxis orientations of Antonio Gramsci, has a strong focus on emancipation and the overcoming of power imbalances. Participatory Action Research, often found in liberationist movements and international development circles, and Feminist Action Research both strive for social transformation via an advocacy process to strengthen peripheral groups in society.

Educational Action Research: Educational Action Research has its foundations in the writings of John Dewey, the great American educational philosopher who believed that professional educators should become involved in community problem-solving. Its practitioners operate mainly out of educational institutions, and focus on development of curriculum, professional development, and applying learning in a social context. It is often the case that university-based action researchers work with primary and secondary school teachers and students on community projects.

Role of the Action Researcher

The researcher’s role is to implement the Action Research method in such a manner as to produce a solution for the problem which is mutually agreeable for all participants, with the process being maintained by them afterwards. To accomplish this, the action researcher has to adopt many different roles at various stages of the process, including those of

Ø planner           

Ø leader

Ø catalyzer        

Ø facilitator

Ø  teacher         

Ø  designer

Ø  listener                  

Ø  observer

Ø  synthesizer           

Ø  reporter

The main role, however, is to nurture local leaders to the point where they can take responsibility for the process.  This point is reached they understand the methods and are able to carry on when the initiating researcher leaves. In many Action Research situations, the hired researcher’s role is primarily to take the time to facilitate dialogue and foster reflective analysis among the participants, provide them with periodic reports, and write a final report when the researcher’s involvement has ended.

Differences between Fundamental Research and Action Research

S.No.	Characteristic	Fundamental Research	Action Research
01.	Objectives	Develop & test educational theories	Find solutions to specific problems in a situation
02.	Training	Superior training is required in Research Methodology	Limited training is required
03.	Selection of a Problem	Wide study is done to select a problem	Problems are identified by teachers in teaching learning rocess
04.	Hypothesis	Highly specific hypotheses is formed	Action Hypotheses are developed
05.	Review of Literature	Extensive & thorough study of literature	No such thorough review is needed
06.	Sample	Large sample size is required	Teacher takes the students of a class as sample
07.	Analysis of Data	Complex analysis is done	Very simple analysis is done
08.	Conclusions	In form of developing theories or generalizations	In form of specific results
09.	Application of Results	Generalizations have broad applicability	Results are implemented in classroom situations to see the outcome

Systems Model of Action-Research Process

 

Unfreezing: Faced with a dilemma or disconfirmation, the individual or group becomes aware of a need to change. The cycle begins with a series of planning actions initiated by the client and the change agent working together. The principal elements of this stage include a preliminary diagnosis, data gathering, feedback of results, and joint action planning. It is the input phase, in which the client system becomes aware of problems as yet unidentified, realizes it may need outside help to effect changes, and shares with the consultant the process of problem diagnosis. Planning stage is a period of unfreezing, or problem awareness.

Changing: The situation is diagnosed and new models of behavior are explored and tested. It is the action, or transformation, phase. It includes actions relating to learning processes and to planning and executing behavioral changes in the client organization. Feedback at this stage would move via Feedback Loop A and would have the effect of altering previous planning to bring the learning activities of the client system into better alignment with change objectives. Action-planning activity is carried out jointly by the consultant and members of the client system. Following the workshop or learning sessions, these action steps are carried out on the job as part of the transformation stage. This stage is a period of changing, in an effort to understand and cope with the system's problems.

Refreezing: Application of new behavior is evaluated, and if reinforcing, adopted. It is the output, or results, phase. It includes actual changes in behavior resulting from corrective action steps taken following the second stage. Data are again gathered from the client system so that progress can be determined and necessary adjustments in learning activities can be made. Minor adjustments of this nature can be made in learning activities via Feedback Loop B. Major adjustments and reevaluations would return the OD project to the first, or planning, stage for basic changes in the program.. The boundaries are not clear-cut and cannot be in a continuous process.  New behaviors are tried out on the job and, if successful and reinforcing, become a part of the system's repertoire of problem-solving behavior. Data are fed back in open joint sessions, and the client and the change agent collaborate in identifying and ranking specific problems, in devising methods for finding their real causes, and in developing plans for coping with them realistically and practically.

Process: Scientific method in the form of data gathering, forming hypotheses, testing hypotheses, and measuring results, although not pursued as rigorously as in the laboratory, is an integral part of the process. It can also set in motion a long-range, cyclical, self-correcting mechanism for maintaining and enhancing the effectiveness of the client's system by leaving the system with practical and useful tools for self-analysis and self-renewal.

The action research ‘cycle’

Planning: All the members of the research team question 'what are' the realities of their particular practices, and begin to search for "what ought to be?"

Acting: The researchers implement the plan they have developed, addressing all or a particular set of problems.

Evaluating: Simultaneous with action is the collection of data. Observation is important for subsequent reflection and action.

Reflecting: The researchers reflect upon what is happening with their project, developing revised action plans based upon what they are learning from the process of planning, acting, and observing. Note how, after an initial round of planning, acting, observing, and reflecting a plan - based upon the information gained from the first round - is developed and implemented. The revised action plan can yield new questions and deeper insights into the area that we are exploring.

Action Research and Information Technology: Recently many organizations have started using information technology and computer mediated communications, leading to a number of convergences between information systems and action research. In some cases, it has been a matter of managers of corporate networks employing action research techniques to facilitate large-scale changes to their information systems. In others, it has been a question of community-based action research projects making use of computer communications to broaden participation. Much of the action research carried out over the past 40 years has been conducted in local settings with the participants meeting face-to-face with real-time dialogue.  The emergence of the Internet has led to an explosion of asynchronous and aspatial group communication in the form of e-mail, computer conferences, video conferencing and recent developments in social networking and Web 2.0 tools.  While there have been numerous attempts to use this new technology in assisting group learning, both within organizations and among groups in the community, there is a dearth of published studies on the use of action research methods in such projects. Most research on group support systems to date has been in short-term, experimental situations using quantitative methods. Very few examples are of longitudinal studies in naturalistic settings using qualitative methods.

Ethical Considerations: Because action research is carried out in real-world circumstances, and involves close and open communication among the people involved, the researchers must pay close attention to ethical considerations in the conduct of their work. Richard Winter (1996) lists a number of principles: 

Ø  Make sure that the relevant persons, committees and authorities have been consulted, and that the principles guiding the work are accepted in advance by all.

Ø  All participants must be allowed to influence the work, and the wishes of those who do not wish to participate must be respected.

Ø  The development of the work must remain visible and open to suggestions from others.

Ø  Permission must be obtained before making observations or examining documents produced for other purposes.

Ø  Descriptions of others’ work and points of view must be negotiated with those concerned before being published.

Ø  The researcher must accept responsibility for maintaining confidentiality.

Ø  Decisions made about the direction of the research and the probable outcomes are collective.

Ø  Researchers are explicit about the nature of the research process from the beginning, including all personal biases and interests.

Ø  There is equal access to information generated by the process for all participants.

Ø  The outside researcher and the initial design team must create a process that maximizes the opportunities for involvement of all participants.

How to do action research?

The basic steps of an action research process constitute an action plan:

à  Review our current practice,

à  identify an aspect that we want to investigate,

à  imagine a way forward,

à  try it out, and

à  take stock of what happens.

à  We modify what we are doing in the light of what we have found, and continue working in this new way (try another option if the new way of working is not right)

à  monitor what we do,

à  review and evaluate the modified action,

à  and so on …

The Action Plan has five steps, viz, Diagnose, Plan, Act, Evaluate, and Specify learning. It is depicted in the following diagram.

Components of a Research Proposal

A research Proposal typically includes the following:

1. The Title of the study:

2. Introduction: Generally the rationale for undertaking the study is provided.

3. Statement of the Problem: The problem of the study with its delimitations is to be stated in detail.

4. Review of Related Literature: A brief review of related studies may be given so as to define the scope of the present study. But in case of action research this is not mandatory.

5. Objectives of the study: The objectives of the study should be stated in brief statement forms.

6. Statement of the Hypothesis: An hypothesis is a tentative solution/conclusion of a problem. Wherever possible, the statement of hypothesis is provided for giving direction to the study.

7. Method of Study: The method of study includes:

(a) Subjects: The students or teachers over whom the study is being conducted. In action research, unlike formal research, sampling is not generally done. Available students or teachers are taken as subjects for study.

(b) Instruments: Tests, questionnaires, tasks or other tools that are to be used in the study need to be specified.

(c) Design: The description of the design indicates the basic structure of the study that needs to be stated in clear terms.

(d) Procedure: The detailed procedure of steps of conducting the study, the techniques to be used, data collection procedures, and resource supports for the study etc. should be studied in detail.

(e) Data Analysis: Description of statistical techniques to be employed for data analysis should be described.

(f) Time schedule: Time schedule includes the major activities or phases of the proposed study and a corresponding expected completion time for each activity.

(g) Budget: Budget includes expenses relating to development of tools, overhead costs, etc.

Five Phases of Action Research

Phase I - Problem Identification:

·         Why do you want to do it?  Is it an important and practical problem, something worth your time and effort, something that could be beneficial to you, your students and others?

·         Is the problem stated clearly and in the form of a question?  Is it broad enough to allow for a range of insights and findings?  Is it narrow enough to be manageable within your timeframe and your daily work?

Phase II - Plan of Action

·         Will you develop and implement a new strategy or approach to address your question?  If so, what will it be?

·         Will you focus your study on existing practices?  If so, which particular ones?

·         What is an appropriate timeline for what you are trying to accomplish?

Phase III - Data Collection

·         What types of data should you try to collect in order to answer your question?

·         How will you ensure that you have multiple perspectives?

·         What resources exist and what information from others might be useful in helping you to frame your question, decide on types of data to collect, or to help you in interpreting your findings?

Phase IV - Analysis of Data

·         What can you learn from the data?  What patterns, insights, and new understandings can you find?

·         What meaning do these patterns, insights, and new understandings have for your practice? for your students?

Phase V - Plan for Future Action

·         What will you do differently in your classroom as a result of this study?

·         What might you recommend to others?

·         How will you write about what you have learned so that the findings will be useful to you and to others?

Starting Points

·         Ask individuals to complete the "Starting Points" questions (see below).  Tell them to think broadly about many areas for possible questions

·         Go around the group one at a time and list on a flipchart all of the different areas that surface from this handout.

·         Ask each person to take one of the areas from  the flipchart (could be an idea of theirs or someone else's) and practice writing a question in that area.

·         Go around the group, and one at a time, ask each person to read their question very slowly twice.  The group should listen to the questions.  Absolutely no comments are made after each question is read.

·         Ask the group to generate characteristics, qualities, and guidelines for what makes a good action research question.

Guidelines for Developing a Question

1.    One that hasn't already been answered

2.    Higher level questions which get at explanations, reasons, relationships.  "How does...?", "What happens when...?"

3.    Not "Yes-No" question

4.    Everyday language; avoid jargon

5.    Not too lengthy; concise; doesn't have to include everything you're thinking

6.    Something manageable; can complete it

7.    Something do-able (in the context of your work)

8.    "Follow your bliss"; want to feel commitment to the question; passion

9.    Keep it close to your own practice; the further away you go, the more work it is

10.  Should have tension; provides you an opportunity to stretch

11.  Meaningful to you; provides you a deeper understanding of the topic

12.  Question leads to other questions

Techniques for Gathering Data

1.    Interviews with students, parents, teachers

2.    Checklists of skills, behaviors, abilities, movement, procedures, interactions, resources

3.    Portfolios of a range of work from students of different abilities around a particular topic; a representation of a total experience; a collection of documents for analysis

4.    Individual files of students' work (e.g., tapes, samples of work, art work, memos, photos of models/projects, reports), of students' opinions; of student attitudes, of students' experiences

5.    Diaries/journals written by teachers, students, parents, class groups, teachers

6.    Field notes/observation records - informal notes written by a teacher

7.    Logs of meetings, lessons, excursions, school expectations, material used

8.    Student-teacher discussion/interaction - records of comments and thoughts generated by students

9.    Questionnaires of attitudes, opinions, preferences, information

10.  Audiotapes of meetings, discussions in class or about data gathered, games, group work, interviews, whole class groups, monologues, readings, lectures, demonstrations

11.  Videotapes of classrooms, lessons, groups, demonstrations, a day in a school, lunch times

12.  Still photography of groups working, classrooms, faces, particular students over time, at fixed intervals in a lesson

13.  Time-on-task analysis of students, teachers; over a lesson, a day, a week

14.  Case study - a comprehensive picture/study of a student or a group of students

Guidelines for Data Collection

Asking the right questions is the key skill in effective data collection.

• Be clear as to why you are collecting data.  Formulate good questions that relate to the specific information needs of the project.
• Be clear about how you are going to use the data you collect.
• Design a process to collect data.  Our beliefs and values affect this selection process.
• Use the appropriate data analysis tools and be certain the necessary data are being collected.  The data:
• must be accurate;
• should be useful;
• must not be too time consuming; and
• must be reliable enough to allow you to formulate hypotheses and develop strategies with confidence.
• Decide how much data is needed.  Ask:
• what is an accurate sample size?
• for how long should the data be collected?
• Make sure that the data make your job easier.
• Use multiple sources of data to increase the believability of the findings.  Collect data from more than two sources or points of view, each which provides a unique justification with respect to relevant information about the situation.
• Present the data in a way that clearly communicates the answer to the question.
• Be aware that how you set up the situation influences the results.
• Review the data.  Ask:
• do the data tell you what you intended?
• can you display the data as you intended?
• Do not expect too much from data.  Remember:
• data should indicate the answer to the question asked during the design of the collection process.
• you do not make inferences from the data that the data will not support.
• data don't stand alone.  It's the meaning we apply to the data that is critical.  "Data do not drive decisions; people do."
• the stronger the disagreements with the data, the bigger the learning potential.  It is important to validate the different views and try to come up with a world view.
• Visually display the data in a format that can reveal underlying patterns.
• Look for patterns related to time or sequence as well as patterns related to differences in staff and other factors.
• Remember that your primary job is not data collection.  No research method should interfere with your primary job.
• While good information is always based on data (the facts), simply collecting data does not necessarily ensure that you will have useful information.
• The key issue is not how do we collect data, but how do we generate useful information?

A Process for Analyzing Your Data

Ø  In using qualitative research, you will be collecting and analyzing at the same time. These processes inform each other.  Be open to new ways of thinking as you learn more from your data.

Ø  Go through everything you have collected. Make notes as you go.

Ø  Look for themes, patterns, big ideas.  Key words and phrases can trigger themes. Determine these themes by your scan of the data, not on your preconceived ideas of what you think the categories are.

Ø  Narrow the themes down to something manageable.  (3-5 of your most compelling and interesting)

Ø  Go back through all of your data and code or label information according to the themes in order to organize your ideas.  Some ideas may fit into more than one theme.  Create sub-groups under each theme.

Ø  Write continuously.  Jot down what you are seeing, what questions are emerging, and what you are learning.  Keep notes on those new ideas which are unanticipated. These may be findings or surprises which you had not planned.

Ø  Review your information after it is coded/labeled to see if there is

§  a frequency of certain items and/or

§  powerful, interesting, unusual comments or behaviors which are of particular interest to you.  This may be an incident which gives you a new insight, and it may be one of the most important to hold on to.

Ø  Identify the main points which appear most frequently and are the most powerful.  It will be hard to let go of some of your information, but it is important to sift through it.

Ø  Write up your major points.  You can write them up by

§  theme,

§  chronologically, or

§  the different modes you used for collecting information.

Ø  Draw the information together to include some of the evidence which supports each of your themes.  The reader should be able to draw conclusions based on the evidence you have presented.

Ideas for your Write – Up

Ø  Your name/what you do (district position)

Ø  Background information (setting, population, school, class)

Ø  Question (expectations, assumptions, evolution, if applicable)

Ø  Why chose the question; (rationale).  What drew you to the question?

Ø  Why important to you. Educational philosophy, if applicable to question.

Ø  Instruments used to collect data (surveys, questionnaires, etc.)

Ø  Actual data (students' samples, quotes, voices; adult quotes; observations)

Ø  Literature review/references (if used)

Ø  Organization of data/analyzing data by themes, chronologically, by questions, by source

Ø  Struggles (to arrive at question, to collect data, findings, etc.)

Ø  Reflections on action research process, separate from the topic

Ø  Changes you've gone through in the process; insights, inconsistencies

Ø  Conclusions/findings; what I learned; interpretation

Ø  Feelings, intuitions not encountered in the study

Ø  Future directions; Where do I go from here?; impact; new questions; ideas for implementation changes in practice/perspective; recommendations

Ø  Pictures

Ø  Other thoughts: All write-ups should not/will not look alike.  They will reflect not only the teacher and his/her particular style, but also the nature and context of the question. Remember you are telling a story. You can organize this chronologically, by themes, by data source (i.e.: students, parents, staff), or some other way.  It's up to you!

Research Report: After completion of the data analysis and interpretation of the findings, the total exercise has to be consolidated in the form of a report. The report records all events of the study and is used to communicate the results to the readers. Documenting and disseminating are the two major purposes of the research report. There are different formats of writing reports. A general format helps wide range of readers for easy comprehension. The teacher educators should be aware of its relevance and help the researcher to develop the skill of writing such reports. The format generally followed, with slight variation here and there, is as follows:

Ø  The Title: The report starts with a title. Generally the title given in the proposal is adhered to, with slight changes if it is absolutely required.

Ø  The abstract: After the title, the abstract of the study is given in a paragraph. It contains a brief summary of the whole study i.e. the objectives, the subjects, the design and the expected results. In case of an action research, the length of the abstract should preferably be within 150-200 words.

Ø  Statement of the Problem: The statement is meant to introduce the problem to the reader. A brief rationale, research questions, objectives or hypotheses and delimitations are briefly and clearly presented in this section.

Ø  Method: Under this method, the following points must be clearly stated:
Subjects: The type and size of subjects taken are to be specified.
Instruments: The tools and materials used in the study are to be briefly described.
Procedure: The procedure followed in collecting and analyses of data are to be systematically presented. It must also include the design of the study.
Results: The results of the study are discussed according to objectives or according to hypotheses accompanied with tables, graphics, figures, etc. in support of the results.

Ø  Discussion: The results are then explained in terms of objectives or hypotheses explaining the circumstances in which this could happen and whether these corroborate or contradict other studies in the particular area. In action research, results and discussion are usually continued under one section.

Ø  Suggestions and Recommendations: Based on the results, the implications of the study and its utility in solving related problems or improving the existing practices should be given which make the study comprehensive.
References: Finally, the list of references used in the study is to be given at the end of the report, usually arranged alphabetically by the surname of the first or the sole author.

Example of Action Research

1.How Sudha and her colleague made their students to select their own writing topics in English

Sudha is confronted with a problem in her English class. She would like to have her 8^th standard students spontaneously select more of their own writing topics. They seem willing enough to write on topics that she assigns. These are done well, but only when the students know they will be graded. Sudha has been to several workshops that have reinforced her belief that students should also be encouraged to find their own purposes and voices in writing. She would like this to happen in her classes. She begins to explore and to experiment with ways that students can be more actively involved in choosing what they will write. On the surface, Sudha’s exploring and experimenting is no different from what many teachers do when confronted by a problem. The difference is that Sudha has decided to do this systematically using a process of collaborative action research. She feels that students will mistrust a blanket invitation to choose their own writing topics, since their previous writing has been assigned by the teacher for evaluation. No other teachers have particularly encouraged the students to find their own voices in their writing before.

Realizing that she is going to be breaking with an accepted practice, Sudha sees that she needs to do some thinking before inviting the students to choose their own topics for writing. So, she starts by thinking about why students do not already do this more naturally. It seems natural enough, so why are her students so reticent? She asks herself, 'What are the sources of this writing for marks?"

Sudha begins by recalling the writing assignments she has given since September. She finds that she has placed a lot of weight on the students learning the proper forms: the business letter, editorials, the short essay, and so forth. In October she agreed to cooperate with a social studies teacher on helping the students to write a research paper as a joint English and social studies assignment. The agreement was that as the English teacher she would mark for usage and appropriate format. The social studies teacher would grade the content.

Informal discussions with the students about their 7^th standard experiences reveal that they had not been allowed to write on topics of their own choice then either. Through these conversations and reflecting on her own teaching, a uniform picture of "teacher directed writing" begins to emerge.

These preliminary thoughts enable Sudha to realize that there is a big distance between what she feels she values as a teacher about student writing, and her actual practice. 'How might I begin to narrow this gap?" she wonders.

Sudha decides to begin with small steps first. She begins by talking to the social studies teacher about her concern over the lack of student motivated writing. The social studies teacher is interested in the problem. In fact, he has his own related concern. He would like to have the students more actively involved in inquiry in the social studies. Both Sudha and her colleague agree to work together again - but this time they are working on a joint action research project instead of cooperating on an assignment.
The two teachers decide that in order to write about a topic of their choice, students need to have something worthwhile to say. As a first step, the social studies teacher agrees to generate potential writing topics by promoting discussion on controversial issues in his classroom. Sudha agrees to encourage students to write personal responses to the issue in any format they choose to be appropriate. The social studies teacher further agrees that he will get together with Sudha to talk about the result of this first attempt.

This example points to a number of features, which make this collaborative action research and not everyday problem solving. Some of these features include:

Ø  Two teachers have joined together around a common question.

Ø  The question is educational.

Ø  A preliminary reconnaissance was carried out in order to focus the question.

Ø  An action step has been decided upon based upon this preliminary reconnaissance.

Ø  The two teachers have agree to get together to discuss the results of their first action step.

Ø  This first cycle of thinking, acting, and reflection may turn into a full-fledged collaborative action research project as future cycles develop. It is this acting and reflecting together that makes this action research. Future cycles are up to the participants, but they might include: a) Sudha and her colleague may decide to introduce students to new writing formats; they may begin to encourage other expressive media. b) They may find that it is appropriate to include the students in the action research, getting them actively involved in the planning of different writing opportunities.

Example 2 – Computer conferencing in a learning community

This study was undertaken by Comstock and Fox (1995) to integrate computer conferencing into a learning community for mid-career working adults attending a Graduate Management Program at Antioch University in Seattle. From 1992 to 1995, the researchers and their students made use of a dial-up computer conferencing system to augment learning outside of monthly classroom weekends. Their findings relate to establishing boundaries to interaction, creating a caring community, and building collaborative learning.

Method: Students were expected to use the system for collaborative learning using three forms of conversation - dialogue, discussion and critical reflection.  Dialogues were enjoined as a result of attempts to relate classroom lessons to personal situations at work, with a better understanding provided by multiple opinions. Discussions, distinguished by the goal of making a group decision or taking an action, required a fair degree of moderation, insofar as participants found it difficult to reach closure. The process of reflecting critically on ideas was also difficult - participants rarely took the time to analyze postings, preferring a more immediate, and more superficial, conversational style. Boundary setting was a matter of access to particular conferences, and actual participation. The architecture of the online environment was equated to that of a house, in which locked rooms allowed for privacy, but hampered interaction. They suggest some software design changes that would provide more cues and flexibility to improve access and usage.

Findings: Relationships in a caring community were fostered by caring talk, personal conversations and storytelling. Over time, expressions of personal concern for other participants increased, exemplifying a more tightly-knit group. Playful conversations of a personal nature also improved group relations, as did stories of events in individuals’ lives. These processes provided the support and induced the trust needed to sustain the more in-depth collaborative learning taking place.

Conclusion: The study concluded with four recommendations: 1) be clear about the purpose of the computer conference and expectations for use; 2) develop incentives for widespread and continuous participation; 3) pay attention to affects of the software on the way the system is used for learning; and 4) teach members of the community how to translate face-to-face collaborative processes to the on-line environment.

Example 3 – Internet-based collaborative work groups in community health

This study was conducted by Lau and Hayward (1997) to explore the structuration of Internet-based collaborative work groups. Over a two-year period, the researchers participated as facilitators in three action research cycles of problem-solving among approximately 15 instructors and project staff, and 25 health professionals from various regions striving to make a transition to a more community-based health program. The aim was to explore how Internet-based communications would influence their evolution into a virtual collaborative workgroup.

Method: The I phase was taken up with defining expectations, providing the technology and developing the customized workgroup system. Feedback from participants noted that shorter and more spaced training sessions, with instructions more focused on specific projects would have been more helpful. The next phase saw the full deployment of the system, and the main lesson learned was that the steepness of the learning curve was severely underestimated, with frustrations only minimally satisfied by a great deal of technical support provided by telephone. The final cycle saw the stabilization of the system and the emergence of the virtual groups.

Findings: Participants who used the system interactively were more likely to establish projects that were collaborative in nature, and that the lack of high quality information on community healthcare online was a drawback.  The participants reported learning a great deal from the initiative.

Conclusion: The role clarity, relationship building, information sharing, resource support, and experiential learning are important aspects in virtual group development.  There was also a sense that more research was needed on how group support systems can help groups interact with their external environment, as well as on how to enhance the process of learning by group members.