CHILD PSYCHOLOGY AND EARLY CHILDHOOD CARE AND DEVELOPMENT

CHILD PSYCHOLOGY AND EARLY CHILDHOOD CARE AND DEVELOPMENT

T. PONMALINI, M.Sc., M.Ed., Ph.D.
H. EMILDA JOSEPHINE, M.A., M.Ed., M.Phil (Eng)., M.Phil (Edu)., Ph.D.

Introduction

The subject psychology is nowadays becoming more and more popular. The reason for its popularity lies with its body of knowledge, which is quite interesting, and its wide use and applications in almost all the walks and spheres of life. However, there was a time when there was no such subject as psychology. The 'study of mind' was covered under a separate branch of philosophy called Mental Psychology. Hence psychology is a legitimate child of psychology. The break away of psychology from philosophy is said to be due to the fact that it gave up sheer speculation in favour of scientific procedure. This drift of psychology from philosophy to science took a long course swaying one way or the other. Such a movement has been responsible for the change in the meaning and definitions of psychology from time to time as can be observed from the following discussion.

Meaning and Definition of Psychology

Etymological derivation of the word 'Psychology' indicates that it has its origin from two Greek words - Psyche and logos. The word 'logos' stands for rational discourse of a study. However, the meaning and interpretation of the word 'psyche' has been in a state of change from time to time leading to subsequent changes in the way of defining the term 'psychology' as may be evident from the following four stages of its evolution.

l  First Stage. By taking the meaning of the word 'psyche' as soul, psychology was first defined as the 'study of soul'.

l  Second Stage. At this stage, the philosopher cum psychologists tried to define psychology as the 'study of the mind' by giving a new meaning and interpretation to the word 'psyche' in the form of 'mind'.

l  Third Stage. The criticism and unacceptability of the meaning of the word psyche as soul or mind led the psychologists to a new search of its proper meaning. The initiative was taken by famous psychologists like William James (1890), Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Bradford Titchener (1894) who, while interpreting psyche as consciousness, defined psychology as a study of consciousness. According to these psychologists the description and explanation of the states of consciousness is the task of philosophy which is usually done by introspection (the process of looking within). In the state of consciousness, we remain aware of the situation, conscious or alive to the task we are doing and the process of thinking and feeling which is growing in our mind.

This definition too was rejected on the ground that it had a very narrow vision as it did not include the sub-conscious and the unconscious activities of the mind and also due to the most subjective nature of the method of introspection which it had taken into account. l  Fourth Stage. This stage in the evolution of the definition of the subject of psychology reflects the advent of the modern era of science and technology. Consequently, in the definition of psychology the word 'study' was replaced by 'science'. The first psychologist who, besides using the word science in place of study, replaced consciousness with total behaviour (conscious as well as unconsciousness) was the famous William McDougall. In the book Physiological Psychology published in 1905, he wrote: 'Psychology may be best and most comprehensively defined as the positive Science of the conduct of living creatures'. Later in 1908, in his book Introduction to Social Psychology, he added the word 'behaviour' to his definition and finally in An Outline of Psychology, gave the following meaningful definition:

"Psychology is a science which aims to give us better understanding and control of the behaviour of the organism as a whole".

In the same period, an American Professor Walter Bowers Pillsbury in his book Essentials of Psychology published in 1911 gave the same behavioral definition of the term psychology in these words 'Psychology may be most satisfactorily defined as the science of human behaviour'.

However, later in 1913, J.B. Watson, the father of behaviorism, proposed to elaborate the concept of the term behaviour by including it in both human and animal behaviors and consequently he defined the psychology as 'The Science of behaviour (taking into account the human as well as animal behaviour).

In the subsequent years of the 20th century, the scholars and psychologists tried to similarity define psychology as a science of behaviour.

"Psychology is the scientific study of the activities of the individual in relation to his environment".  - Woodworth and Marquis (1948)

"Psychology today concerns itself with the scientific investigation of behaviour".

- N.L. Munn (1967)

Fields or Branches of Psychology

General Psychology

It is relatively a large area or field of psychology which deals with the fundamental rules, principles and theories of the subject in relation to the study of the behaviour of normal adult human beings.

Abnormal Psychology

It is that branch or field of psychology which describes and explains the behaviour of abnormal people in relation to their own environment. The causes, symptoms and syndromes, description and treatment of the abnormalities of behaviour form the subject matter of this branch.

Clinical Psychology

Clinical psychology comes at the forefront after the work and operations of the knowledge and activities connected with abnormal psychology have been done. The knowledge about normality of behaviour and the underlying causes, symptoms etc. Provide necessary framework to the subject matter and skills required for the study of clinical psychology. The abnormality and maladaptation of the behaviour leads to mental illness and diseases. A proper diagnosis of such illness and diseases is then the work of clinical psychology. It analyses the causes of such maladaptation and mental illness and then suggests ways and means for the proper treatment and rehabilitation of the patient. The experts, who provide such treatment to the patients attending the clinic or hospital, are known as clinical psychologists.

Physiological Psychology

This branch of psychology describes and explains the biological and psychological basis of behaviour. The study of the internal environment and psychological structure of the body, particularly brain, nervous system and functioning of the glands in relation to the cognitive, cognitive and affective behaviour of the human being form part of the subject matter of this branch.

Social Psychology

This branch of psychology studies the human behaviour in relation to the social environment. One's behaviour as a member of the group, the process of communication and inter - personal relationship, group dynamics and social relationship etc., are studied under this branch.

Industrial Psychology

It is that branch of psychology which studies the human behaviour in relation to the situations and environment prevalent in the industrial world. It aims at bringing improvement in the working output of the human resources for the purpose of raising quality production. Consumer psychology, selection, training and placement of human capital, establishing harmonious relationship between the employee and the employer, strengthening morale of the workers and the employees etc., form the subject matter of this branch.

Crime Psychology

This branch of psychology studies the behaviour of the criminals in relation to their situations and causes through behaviour analysis techniques and adopts behaviour modification devices for their proper reforms and rehabilitation.

Experimental Psychology

This branch of psychology describes and explains the ways and means of carrying out psychological experiments following scientific method sin controlled or laboratory situations for the study of mental processes and behaviour. It picks up animals, birds and human beings as subjects for these experiments.

Child Psychology

This branch of psychology deals with the study of the behaviour and the process of growth and development of children from birth to the beginning of the period of adolescence.

Adolescent Psychology

In this branch of psychology, we study the process of growth and development during adolescence, and the personality characteristics, behavioral and adjustment problems faced by adolescents. It helps the elders to understand the adolescents in their proper perspectives and in helping them in their proper adjustment as well as personal and social welfare.

Adult Psychology

This branch of psychology deals with the study of the behaviour of adults. The characteristics of growth and development in various dimensions of their personality, their interests, aptitudes and attitudes, the typical behavioral and adjustment problems specially related to the period etc.are studied under this branch. The knowledge of adult psychology proves helpful to the teachers of adult education, workers and counselors in teaching and guiding their subjects properly for their individual and social progress.

Educational Psychology

In this branch of psychology, we try to study the behaviour of the learner, with respect to educational environment. As a science of education, the subject matter of this branch helps in improving all the processes and products of education. The teachers can teach well and students can learn well with the help of the knowledge and skills gained through the study of this subject. It also helps the teachers in acquiring proper insight for bringing desirable modification in the behaviour and an all-round harmonious personality development of the students.

Para Psychology

It is a relatively new branch of psychology. There are instances where people have sensed that somebody is in trouble despite being at a faraway place, have foretold the coming events or have given an account of their previous births. Para psychology tries to go into the depth of such behaviour related to telepathy, extra-sensory perceptions and rebirth etc.

Development Psychology

This branch of psychology deals with the processes and products of the growth and development of human beings at all stages of life - from conception till death - and in all the aspects of their personality. The study of this branch equips us well with the knowledge of expected behaviour patterns and personality characters at various stages of growth and development.

Animal Psychology

This branch of psychology deals with the study of animal behaviour in controlled situations. The study of the behaviour patterns of the animals through various types of experiments and observations constitute the subject matter of this branch. Ci table in this connection are the studies related with the behaviour of cats by Thorndike, dogs by Pavlov, rats and pigeons by Skinner and of the chimpanzees by Kohlar and Koffaka. Such studies help in understanding the behaviour of these animals in some or the other type of controlled situations. The other major benefit that can be derived from these studies is of comparative and inferential nature. We can derive comparative analysis of the behaviour of different types of animals in a particular situation or environmental set up. The results of these studies can then be generalized in dealing with of behavioral adjustment and development problems of the human beings.

Cognitive Psychology

This branch of psychology deals mainly with the study of the processes and products of growth and development of cognitive abilities and capabilities of the human beings. It studies the behaviour of the individuals in relation to the development of his cognitive strengths and their use in challenging circumstances. It emphasizes the role of one's cognitive abilities like reasoning and thinking; analysis and synthesis, inferring and generalizing, intelligence and insight etc. in the process of learning, problem solving, creative output and adjustment etc. The experts dealing with the study of the branch referred to as cognitive psychologists.

Military Psychology

This branch of psychology studies the use of psychological principles and techniques in the world of military science. How to keep the morale of the soldiers and citizens high during war, how to fight a war of propaganda and intelligence services, how to secure better recruitment of the armed forces personnel and how to improve the fighting skills and organizational climate and leadership etc., are the various topics that are dealt with in this branch of psychology.

Legal Psychology

It is that branch of applied psychology which tries to study the behaviour of the persons like clients, criminals, witnesses and so on in their respective surroundings with the help of the application of psychological principles and techniques. The subject matter of this branch deals with improving the ways and means of detecting crimes, false witnesses and other complex phenomena. The root causes of a crime, offence, dispute or any legal case can be properly or any legal case can be properly understood with the help of this branch of psychology, and proper reformatory and rehabilitation measures may be employed.

Political Psychology

This branch of psychology relates itself with the use of psychological principles and techniques in studying politics and deriving politics gains. The knowledge of the dynamics of the group behaviour, judgment of the public opinion, leadership qualities, psychology of a propaganda and suggestions, the art of diplomacy, etc., are some of the key concepts that find place in the subject matter of political psychology.

Geo-Psychology

This branch of psychology describes and analyses the relationship between physical environment, particularly weather, climate, soil, and landscape with behaviour.

Health Psychology

In this branch, the facts, principles and theories of psychology are used in the task of preservation of the physical and mental health of individuals. Since many of our physical ailments are said to be due to of our anxieties, worries, stress, conflicts and frustrations, psychological handling of the affected individuals may help in the prevention and treatment of various physical and mental disorders, ailments and diseases.

Sports Psychology

This branch of psychology deals with the study of the behaviour of the players and sports personnel viva-vis the activities, experiences, situations and environment prevalent in the world of sports. Today, this branch of psychology is playing quite and effective role in bringing desirable improvement in the processes and persons connected with the sports world. This includes bringing improvement in the mental and physical health of the players, inculcating in them true sportsman's feelings through suitable behaviour modification and group dynamics techniques, providing sufficient motivation and raising their morale at the time of competition, devising training and coaching techniques so that the players excel in individual as well as group activities.

Environmental Psychology

Environment plays a key role in affecting and influencing the process of growth and development, evolution of behaviour patterns, learning of specific personality characteristics, disorders and behaviour problems etc. The description and analysis of the process and the ways and the steps we can take for modifying and structuring environment for the social well-being - all these constitute the subject matter of environmental psychology. An environmental psychologist thus give more emphasis and weight age to the environmental setting and facilities for moldings the behaviour of the individuals in the desired direction, solving their personal and social problems and working towards their individual and social progress.

Community Psychology

A particular community, society or group is known to possess its own psychology of thinking, feeling and doing. Those belonging to this community have a unique style of living and behaving, coping with one's self and the environment, maintaining intra-personal and interpersonal relations. The study of such behaviour patterns and styles may thus help in knowing the individual and group behaviour of the members of this community, the merits and limitations of the community resources as facilitator or barrier in their progress and so on. Such knowledge and understanding of community psychology may then help the students, researchers and social workers for devising means and ways for the welfare and progress of the community.

Correctional Psychology

This branch of psychology is concerned with the corrective measures and activities designed for modifying the undesirable, abnormal and maladaptive behaviour of the affected individuals. It discusses, explains and suggests the ways and means of the diagnosis, prevention as well as treatment of the deviant behaviour, so that it is brought back to the right channel.

Aerospace Psychology

It is relatively a new development of psychology and studies the behaviour of aeronauts and astronauts, who venture to travel in space. They have to face the challenges of a new environment quite different from that on the earth. As soon as they go higher and higher in the space, there is tremendous change in their psychological functioning. Their mental functioning, emotional set up etc.are also affected accordingly. The new challenges faced on account of weightlessness, changed equations of gravitational powers and other special situations and difficulties created by the space related environment demand from them quite a lot in terms of adapting behaviour and sound mental health. Aerospace psychology tries to focus on these issues in order to find the ways and means of providing adequate behavioral training to all those who plan to become astronauts or inhabitants of the space colonies in the coming future.

Consumer Psychology

This branch of psychology is concerned with the study of the behaviour of the consumers in relation to their present economic and social status and consumption related environment. The study is quite valuable for the manufacturers, advertisers, shopkeepers and salesman who wish to reach the mind and heart of the consumers for the sale of their products.

Individual Psychology

There are differences among individuals with respect to each and every aspect of human behaviour and personality traits. The nature and causes of such differences are studied under individual psychology.

Psychometrics

This branch of psychology is concerned with the construction and use of different tests and techniques meant for the measurement or assessment of the various types of human abilities and capacities, the processes and products of human behaviour and nature of the relationships an adjustment etc. Thus, the task of construction and standardization of various intelligence tests, interest and aptitude tests, attitude scales, inventories and other techniques meant for the assessment of personality traits, behavioral characteristics and adjustment etc. Are carried out through the study of this branch. Since statistical methods and techniques are very much needed in the construction, standardization and application of these measures, these are also included in the subject matter of this branch of psychology.

Organizational or Managerial Psychology

The popularity of this branch of psychology is on a continuous rise on account of its utility in bringing desired efficiency in the organizational climate and managerial capacities. With the help of the knowledge and skills acquired through the study of this branch, we can properly study the behaviour of the human resources related to the organizational climate of an establishment or institution. In the light of this study, we can devise suitable means and measures for maintaining proper co-ordination and inter-relationship among the personnel holding different positions in an establishment. We can help them in maintaining their zeal and enthusiasm for exercising the duties properly and co-operatively by seeking proper job satisfaction and adjustment in their work environment.

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